Practical Electronics for Inventors

Practical Electronics

for Inventors

Paul Scherz

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Contents

Preface

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Electronics 1

CHAPTER 2

Theory 5

2.1 Current 5

2.2 Voltage 7

2.3 Resistance 8

2.4 DC Power Sources 9

2.5 Two Simple Battery Sources 10

2.6 Electric Circuits 10

2.7 Ohm’s Law 11

2.8 Circuit Reduction 11

2.9 Kirchhoff’s Laws 14

2.10 Thevenin’s Theorem 17

2.11 Sinusoidal Power Sources 20

2.12 Root Mean Square (rms) Voltages 20

2.13 Capacitors 21

2.14 Reactance of a Capacitor 23

2.15 Inductors 24

2.16 Reactance of an Inductor 26

2.17 Fundamental Potentials and Circuits 26

2.18 DC Sources and

2.19 Complex Numbers 30

2.20 Circuits with Sinusoidal Sources 33

2.21 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex

Impedances 34

Contents

2.22 Impedances in Series and the Voltage Divider 38

2.23 Impedances in Parallel and the Current Divider 39

2.24 Applying Kirchhoff’s Laws in AC Form 39

2.25 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form 43

2.26 Power in AC Circuits 44

2.27 Decibels 45

2.28 Resonance in

2.29 Resonance in

2.30 Filters 48

2.31 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources 53

2.32 Circuits with Nonperiodic Sources 55

2.33 Nonlinear Circuits and Analyzing Circuits by Intuition 55

LC Circuits 46RLC Circuits 47

CHAPTER 3

Basic Electronic Circuit Components 59

3.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors 59

3.1.1 Wires 59

3.1.2 Cables 61

3.1.3 Connectors 63

3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols 66

3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects within Wires and Cables 66

3.2 Batteries 76

3.2.1 How a Cell Works 77

3.2.2 Primary Batteries 79

3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries 80

3.2.4 Secondary Batteries 81

3.2.5 Battery Capacity 83

3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery 83

3.3 Switches 84

3.3.1 How a Switch Works 84

3.3.2 Describing a Switch 85

3.3.3 Kinds of Switches 86

3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications 88

3.4 Relays 89

3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays 91

3.4.2 A Few Notes about Relays 92

3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits 93

3.5 Resistors 93

3.5.1 How a Resistor Works 94

3.5.2 Basic Resistor Operation 95

3.5.3 Types of Fixed Resistors 96

3.5.4 Understanding Resistor Labels 97

3.5.5 Power Ratings for Resistors 98

3.5.6 Variable Resistors 98

Contents

vii

3.6 Capacitors 99

3.6.1 How a Capacitor Works 100

3.6.2 A Note about

3.6.3 Water Analogy of a Capacitor 101

3.6.4 Basic Capacitor Functions 102

3.6.5 Kinds of Capacitors 103

3.6.6 Variable Capacitors 105

3.6.7 Reading Capacitor Labels 105

3.6.8 Important Things to Know about Capacitors 105

3.6.9 Applications 106

3.7 Inductors 108

3.7.1 How an Inductor Works 108

3.7.2 Basic Inductor Operation 110

3.7.3 Kinds of Coils 111

3.8 Transformers 112

3.8.1 Basic Operation 115

3.8.2 Special Kinds of Transformers 116

3.8.3 Applications 117

3.8.4 Real Kinds of Transformers 118

3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers 119

3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers 120

I = CdV/dt 101

CHAPTER 4

Semiconductors 123

4.1 Semiconductor Technology 123

4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor? 123

4.1.2 Applications of Silicon 128

4.2 Diodes 129

4.2.1 How a

4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy 131

4.2.3 Basic Applications 131

4.2.4 Important Things to Know about Diodes 135

4.2.5 Zener Diodes 136

4.2.6 Zener Diode Water Analogy 136

4.2.7 Basic Applications for Zener Diodes 136

4.3 Transistors 138

4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors 138

4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors 140

4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors 158

4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 168

4.3.5 Unijunction Transistors 177

4.4 Thyristors 181

4.4.1 Introduction 181

4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 182

4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches 185

4.4.4 Triacs 186

4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs 189

pn-Junction Diode Works 129

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Contents

CHAPTER 5

Optoelectronics 191

5.1 A Little Lecture on Photons 191

5.2 Lamps 193

5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 196

5.3.1 How an LED Works 196

5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs 197

5.3.3 Technical Stuff about LEDs 198

5.3.4 Basic LED Operations 200

5.4 Photoresistors 201

5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works 202

5.4.1 Technical Stuff 202

5.4.2 Applications 202

5.5 Photodiodes 203

5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works 204

5.5.2 Basic Operations 204

5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes 205

5.6 Solar Cells 205

5.6.1 Basic Operations 206

5.7 Phototransistors 206

5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works 207

5.7.2 Basic Configurations 208

5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors 208

5.7.4 Technical Stuff 208

5.7.5 Applications 209

5.8 Photothyristors 210

5.8.1 How LASCRs Work 210

5.8.1 Basic Operation 211

5.9 Optoisolators 211

5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators 212

5.9.2 Applications 212

CHAPTER 6

Integrated Circuits 213

6.1 IC Packages 214

6.2 Some Basic ICs to Get You Started 216

CHAPTER 7

Operational Amplifiers 219

7.1 Operational Amplifier Water Analogy 220

7.2 How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation) 221

7.3 Theory 222

7.4 Negative Feedback 223

7.5 Positive Feedback 228

7.6 Real Kinds of Op Amps 229

7.7 Op Amp Specifications 231

Contents

ix

7.8 Powering Op Amps 233

7.9 Some Practical Notes 234

7.10 Voltage and Current Offset Compensation 235

7.11 Frequency Compensation 236

7.12 Comparators 236

7.13 Comparators with Hysteresis 238

7.13.1 Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis 238

7.13.2 Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis 239

7.14 Using Single-Supply Comparators 240

7.15 Window Comparator 240

7.16 Voltage-Level Indicator 241

7.17 Applications 241

CHAPTER 8

Filters 247

8.1 Things to Know before You Start Designing Filters 248

8.2 Basic Filters 249

8.3 Passive Low-Pass Filter Design 250

8.4 A Note on Filter Types 254

8.5 Passive High-Pass Filter Design 254

8.6 Passive Bandpass Filter Design 256

8.7 Passive Notch Filter Design 258

8.8 Active Filter Design 259

8.8.1 Active Low-Pass Filter Example 260

8.8.2 Active High-Pass Filter Example 261

8.8.3 Active Bandpass Filters 262

8.8.4 Active Notch Filters 264

8.9 Integrated Filter Circuits 265

CHAPTER 9

Oscillators and Timers 267

9.1 RC Relaxation Oscillators 268

9.2 The 555 Timer IC 270

9.2.1 How a 555 Works (Astable Operation) 271

9.2.2 Basic Astable Operation 272

9.2.3 How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation) 273

9.2.4 Basic Monostable Operation 274

9.2.5 Some Important Notes about 555 Timers 274

9.2.6 Simple 555 Applications 275

9.3 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) 276

9.4 Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators 277

9.5

9.6 Crystal Oscillators 280

LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators) 277

x

Contents

CHAPTER 10

Voltage Regulators and Power Supplies 283

10.1 Voltage-Regulator ICs 285

10.1.1 Fixed Regulator ICs 285

10.1.2 Adjustable Regulator ICs 285

10.1.3 Regulator Specifications 286

10.2 A Quick Look at a Few Regulator Applications 286

10.3 The Transformer 286

10.4 Rectifier Packages 286

10.5 A Few Simple Power Supplies 287

10.6 Technical Points about Ripple Reduction 289

10.7 Loose Ends 291

10.8 Switching Regulator Supplies (Switchers) 292

10.9 Kinds of Commercial Power Supply Packages 296

10.10 Power Supply Construction 297

CHAPTER 11

Audio Electronics 299

11.1 A Little Lecture on Sound 299

11.2 Microphones 301

11.3 Microphone Specifications 302

11.4 Audio Amplifiers 303

11.5 Preamplifiers 304

11.6 Mixer Circuits 305

11.7 ANote on Impedance Matching 305

11.8 Speakers 306

11.9 Crossover Networks 307

11.10 Simple ICs Used to Drive Speakers 309

11.11 Audible-Signal Devices 310

11.12 Miscellaneous Audio Circuits 310

CHAPTER 12

Digital Electronics 313

12.1 The Basics of Digital Electronics 313

12.1.1 Digital Logic States 313

12.1.2 Number Codes Used in Digital Electronics 314

12.1.3 Clock Timing and Parallel versus Serial Transmission 320

12.2 Logic Gates 321

12.2.1 Multiple-Input Logic Gates 322

12.2.2 Digital Logic Gate ICs 322

12.2.3 Applications for a Single Logic Gate 323

12.2.4 Combinational Logic 325

12.2.5 Keeping Circuits Simple (Karnaugh Maps) 332

Contents

xi

12.3 Combinational Devices 334

12.3.1 Multiplexers (Data Selectors) and Bilateral Switches 334

12.3.2 Demultiplexers (Data Distributors) and Decoders 336

12.3.3 Encoders and Code Converters 339

12.3.4 Binary Adders 342

12.3.5 Binary Adder/Subtractor 344

12.3.6 Arithmetic/Logic Units (ALUs) 344

12.3.7 Comparators and Magnitude Comparator ICs 345

12.3.8 Parity Generator/Checker 346

12.3.9 ANote on Obsolescence and the Trend toward Microcontroller

Control 347

12.4 Logic Families 348

12.4.1 TTL Family of ICs 349

12.4.2 CMOS Family of ICs 351

12.4.3 Input/Output Voltages and Noise Margins 351

12.4.4 Current Ratings, Fanout, and Propagation Delays 352

12.4.5 A Detailed Look at the Various TTL and CMOS Subfamilies 353

12.4.6 A Look at a Few Other Logic Series 356

12.4.7 Logic Gates with Open-Collector Outputs 357

12.4.8 Schmitt-Triggered Gates 358

12.4.9 Interfacing Logic Families 359

12.5 Powering and Testing Logic ICs and General Rules of Thumb 360

12.5.1 Powering Logic ICs 360

12.5.2 Power Supply Decoupling 361

12.5.3 Unused Inputs 361

12.5.4 Logic Probes and Logic Pulsers 362

12.6 Sequential Logic 363

12.6.1 SR Flip-Flops 363

12.6.2 SR Flip-Flop (Latch) ICs 368

12.6.3 D Flip-Flops 369

12.6.4 A Few Simple D-Type Flip-Flop Applications 371

12.6.5 Quad and Octal D Flip-Flops 372

12.6.6 JK Flip-Flops 373

12.6.7 Applications for JK Flip-Flops 375

12.6.8 Practical Timing Considerations with Flip-Flops 378

12.6.9 Digital Clock Generator and Single-Pulse Generators 379

12.6.10 Automatic Power-Up Clear (Reset) Circuits 382

12.6.11 More on Switch Debouncers 382

12.6.12 Pullup and Pulldown Resistors 383

12.7 Counter ICs 384

12.7.1 Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) ICs 384

12.7.2 Synchronous Counter ICs 387

12.7.3 ANote on Counters with Displays 393

12.8 Shift Registers 394

12.8.1 Serial-In/Serial-Out Shifter Registers 395

12.8.2 Serial-In/Parallel-Out Shift Registers 395

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Contents

12.8.3 Parallel-In/Serial-Out Shift Register 396

12.8.4 Ring Counter (Shift Register Sequencer) 396

12.8.5 Johnson Shift Counter 397

12.8.6 Shift Register ICs 398

12.8.7 Simple Shift Register Applications 401

12.9 Three-State Buffers, Latches, and Transceivers 404

12.9.1 Three-State Octal Buffers 404

12.9.2 Three-State Octal Latches and Flip-Flops 405

12.9.3 Transceivers 407

12.10 Additional Digital Topics 407

CHAPTER 13

DC Motors, RC Servos, and Stepper Motors 409

13.1 DC Continuous Motors 409

13.2 Speed Control of DC Motors 410

13.3 Directional Control of DC Motors 411

13.4 RC Servos 412

13.5 Stepper Motors 414

13.6 Kinds of Stepper Motors 415

13.7 Driving Stepper Motors 417

13.8 Controlling the Driver with a Translator 419

13.9 A Final Word on Identifying Stepper Motors 421

CHAPTER 14

Hands-on Electronics 423

14.1 Safety 423

14.1.1 Some Safety Tips 424

14.1.2 Damaging Components with Electrostatic Discharge 425

14.1.3 Handling Precautions 426

14.2 Constructing Circuits 426

14.2.1 Drawing a Circuit Schematic 426

14.2.2 ANote on Circuit Simulator Programs 428

14.2.3 Making a Prototype of Your Circuit 428

14.2.4 The Final Circuit 429

14.2.5 A Note about Board Layout 433

14.2.6 Special Pieces of Hardware Used in Circuit Construction 433

14.2.7 Soldering 434

14.2.8 Desoldering 434

14.2.9 Enclosing the Circuit 435

14.2.10 Useful Items to Keep Handy 435

14.2.11 Troubleshooting the Circuits You Build 436

14.3 Multimeters 437

14.3.1 Basic Operation 437

14.3.2 How Analog VOMs Work 438

14.3.3 How Digital Multimeters Work 439

14.3.4 A Note on Measurement Errors 440

Contents

xiii

14.4 Oscilloscopes 441

14.4.1 How Scopes Work 441

14.4.2 Interior Circuitry of a Scope 443

14.4.3 Aiming the Beam 444

14.4.4 Scope Applications 445

14.4.5 What All the Little Knobs and Switches Do 446

14.4.6 Measuring Things with Scopes 450

14.4.7 Scope Applications 455

APPENDICES

459

APPENDIX A

Power Distribution and Home Wiring 459

A.1 Power Distribution 459

A.2 A Closer Look at Three-Phase Electricity 460

A.3 Home Wiring 462

A.4 Electricity in Other Countries 463

APPENDIX B

Electronic Symbols 465

APPENDIX C

Useful Facts and Formulas 467

C.1 Greek Alphabet 467

C.2 Powers of 10 Unit Prefixes 467

C.3 Linear Functions (

C.4 Quadratic Equation (

C.5 Exponents and Logarithms 468

C.6 Trigonometry 468

C.7 Complex Numbers 469

C.8 Differential Calculus 469

y = mx + b) 467y = ax2 + bx + c) 468

APPENDIX D

Finding Components 471

APPENDIX E

A Note on Injection Molding and Patents 473

APPENDIX F

History of Electronics Timeline 477

APPENDIX G

Component Data, List of Logic ICs, Foreign Semiconductor Codes 483

G.1 Standard Resistance Values for 5% Carbon-Film Resistors 483

G.2 Selection of Diodes 483

G.3 Selection of Zener Diodes 485

G.4 General Purpose Bipolar Transistors 486

G.5 General Purpose Power Bipolar Transistors 487

G.6 Selection of RF Transistors 488

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Contents

G.7 Selection of Small-Signal JFETs 488

G.8 Selection of Power FETs 489

G.9 Selection of Op Amps 490

G.10 Common 4000 Series Logic ICs 491

G.11 Common 7000 Series Logic ICs 492

G.12 Semiconductor Codes 494

APPENDIX H

Analog/Digital Interfacing 497

H.1 Triggering Simple Logic Responses from Analog Signals 497

H.2 Using Logic to Drive External Loads 498

H.3 Analog Switches 499

H.4 Analog Multiplexer/Demultiplexer 500

H.5 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion 501

H.6 Analog-to-Digital Converters 508

APPENDIX I

Displays 515

I.1 LED Displays 515

I.2 Alphanumeric LED Displays 518

I.3 Liquid-Crystal Displays 521

APPENDIX J

Memory Devices 535

J.1 Read-Only Memories (ROMs) 535

J.2 Simple ROM Made Using Diodes 536

J.3 Terms Used to Describe Memory Size and Organization 537

J.4 Simple Programmable ROM 538

J.5 Various Kinds of ROM Devices 539

J.6 Random-Access Memories (RAMs) 545

APPENDIX K

Microprocessors and Microcontrollers 553

K.1 Introduction to Microprocessors 554

K.2 Microcontrollers 561

Index 585

RC/RL/RLC Circuits 28