Practical Electronics
for Inventors
Paul Scherz
Contents
Preface
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Electronics 1CHAPTER 2
Theory 52.1 Current 5
2.2 Voltage 7
2.3 Resistance 8
2.4 DC Power Sources 9
2.5 Two Simple Battery Sources 10
2.6 Electric Circuits 10
2.7 Ohm’s Law 11
2.8 Circuit Reduction 11
2.9 Kirchhoff’s Laws 14
2.10 Thevenin’s Theorem 17
2.11 Sinusoidal Power Sources 20
2.12 Root Mean Square (rms) Voltages 20
2.13 Capacitors 21
2.14 Reactance of a Capacitor 23
2.15 Inductors 24
2.16 Reactance of an Inductor 26
2.17 Fundamental Potentials and Circuits 26
2.18 DC Sources and
2.19 Complex Numbers 30
2.20 Circuits with Sinusoidal Sources 33
2.21 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex
Impedances 34
Contents
2.22 Impedances in Series and the Voltage Divider 38
2.23 Impedances in Parallel and the Current Divider 39
2.24 Applying Kirchhoff’s Laws in AC Form 39
2.25 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form 43
2.26 Power in AC Circuits 44
2.27 Decibels 45
2.28 Resonance in
2.29 Resonance in
2.30 Filters 48
2.31 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources 53
2.32 Circuits with Nonperiodic Sources 55
2.33 Nonlinear Circuits and Analyzing Circuits by Intuition 55
LC Circuits 46RLC Circuits 47CHAPTER 3
Basic Electronic Circuit Components 593.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors 59
3.1.1 Wires 59
3.1.2 Cables 61
3.1.3 Connectors 63
3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols 66
3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects within Wires and Cables 66
3.2 Batteries 76
3.2.1 How a Cell Works 77
3.2.2 Primary Batteries 79
3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries 80
3.2.4 Secondary Batteries 81
3.2.5 Battery Capacity 83
3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery 83
3.3 Switches 84
3.3.1 How a Switch Works 84
3.3.2 Describing a Switch 85
3.3.3 Kinds of Switches 86
3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications 88
3.4 Relays 89
3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays 91
3.4.2 A Few Notes about Relays 92
3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits 93
3.5 Resistors 93
3.5.1 How a Resistor Works 94
3.5.2 Basic Resistor Operation 95
3.5.3 Types of Fixed Resistors 96
3.5.4 Understanding Resistor Labels 97
3.5.5 Power Ratings for Resistors 98
3.5.6 Variable Resistors 98
Contents
vii3.6 Capacitors 99
3.6.1 How a Capacitor Works 100
3.6.2 A Note about
3.6.3 Water Analogy of a Capacitor 101
3.6.4 Basic Capacitor Functions 102
3.6.5 Kinds of Capacitors 103
3.6.6 Variable Capacitors 105
3.6.7 Reading Capacitor Labels 105
3.6.8 Important Things to Know about Capacitors 105
3.6.9 Applications 106
3.7 Inductors 108
3.7.1 How an Inductor Works 108
3.7.2 Basic Inductor Operation 110
3.7.3 Kinds of Coils 111
3.8 Transformers 112
3.8.1 Basic Operation 115
3.8.2 Special Kinds of Transformers 116
3.8.3 Applications 117
3.8.4 Real Kinds of Transformers 118
3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers 119
3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers 120
I = CdV/dt 101CHAPTER 4
Semiconductors 1234.1 Semiconductor Technology 123
4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor? 123
4.1.2 Applications of Silicon 128
4.2 Diodes 129
4.2.1 How a
4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy 131
4.2.3 Basic Applications 131
4.2.4 Important Things to Know about Diodes 135
4.2.5 Zener Diodes 136
4.2.6 Zener Diode Water Analogy 136
4.2.7 Basic Applications for Zener Diodes 136
4.3 Transistors 138
4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors 138
4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors 140
4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors 158
4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 168
4.3.5 Unijunction Transistors 177
4.4 Thyristors 181
4.4.1 Introduction 181
4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 182
4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches 185
4.4.4 Triacs 186
4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs 189
pn-Junction Diode Works 129viii
ContentsCHAPTER 5
Optoelectronics 1915.1 A Little Lecture on Photons 191
5.2 Lamps 193
5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 196
5.3.1 How an LED Works 196
5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs 197
5.3.3 Technical Stuff about LEDs 198
5.3.4 Basic LED Operations 200
5.4 Photoresistors 201
5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works 202
5.4.1 Technical Stuff 202
5.4.2 Applications 202
5.5 Photodiodes 203
5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works 204
5.5.2 Basic Operations 204
5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes 205
5.6 Solar Cells 205
5.6.1 Basic Operations 206
5.7 Phototransistors 206
5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works 207
5.7.2 Basic Configurations 208
5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors 208
5.7.4 Technical Stuff 208
5.7.5 Applications 209
5.8 Photothyristors 210
5.8.1 How LASCRs Work 210
5.8.1 Basic Operation 211
5.9 Optoisolators 211
5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators 212
5.9.2 Applications 212
CHAPTER 6
Integrated Circuits 2136.1 IC Packages 214
6.2 Some Basic ICs to Get You Started 216
CHAPTER 7
Operational Amplifiers 2197.1 Operational Amplifier Water Analogy 220
7.2 How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation) 221
7.3 Theory 222
7.4 Negative Feedback 223
7.5 Positive Feedback 228
7.6 Real Kinds of Op Amps 229
7.7 Op Amp Specifications 231
Contents
ix7.8 Powering Op Amps 233
7.9 Some Practical Notes 234
7.10 Voltage and Current Offset Compensation 235
7.11 Frequency Compensation 236
7.12 Comparators 236
7.13 Comparators with Hysteresis 238
7.13.1 Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis 238
7.13.2 Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis 239
7.14 Using Single-Supply Comparators 240
7.15 Window Comparator 240
7.16 Voltage-Level Indicator 241
7.17 Applications 241
CHAPTER 8
Filters 2478.1 Things to Know before You Start Designing Filters 248
8.2 Basic Filters 249
8.3 Passive Low-Pass Filter Design 250
8.4 A Note on Filter Types 254
8.5 Passive High-Pass Filter Design 254
8.6 Passive Bandpass Filter Design 256
8.7 Passive Notch Filter Design 258
8.8 Active Filter Design 259
8.8.1 Active Low-Pass Filter Example 260
8.8.2 Active High-Pass Filter Example 261
8.8.3 Active Bandpass Filters 262
8.8.4 Active Notch Filters 264
8.9 Integrated Filter Circuits 265
CHAPTER 9
Oscillators and Timers 2679.1 RC Relaxation Oscillators 268
9.2 The 555 Timer IC 270
9.2.1 How a 555 Works (Astable Operation) 271
9.2.2 Basic Astable Operation 272
9.2.3 How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation) 273
9.2.4 Basic Monostable Operation 274
9.2.5 Some Important Notes about 555 Timers 274
9.2.6 Simple 555 Applications 275
9.3 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) 276
9.4 Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators 277
9.5
9.6 Crystal Oscillators 280
LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators) 277x
ContentsCHAPTER 10
Voltage Regulators and Power Supplies 28310.1 Voltage-Regulator ICs 285
10.1.1 Fixed Regulator ICs 285
10.1.2 Adjustable Regulator ICs 285
10.1.3 Regulator Specifications 286
10.2 A Quick Look at a Few Regulator Applications 286
10.3 The Transformer 286
10.4 Rectifier Packages 286
10.5 A Few Simple Power Supplies 287
10.6 Technical Points about Ripple Reduction 289
10.7 Loose Ends 291
10.8 Switching Regulator Supplies (Switchers) 292
10.9 Kinds of Commercial Power Supply Packages 296
10.10 Power Supply Construction 297
CHAPTER 11
Audio Electronics 29911.1 A Little Lecture on Sound 299
11.2 Microphones 301
11.3 Microphone Specifications 302
11.4 Audio Amplifiers 303
11.5 Preamplifiers 304
11.6 Mixer Circuits 305
11.7 ANote on Impedance Matching 305
11.8 Speakers 306
11.9 Crossover Networks 307
11.10 Simple ICs Used to Drive Speakers 309
11.11 Audible-Signal Devices 310
11.12 Miscellaneous Audio Circuits 310
CHAPTER 12
Digital Electronics 31312.1 The Basics of Digital Electronics 313
12.1.1 Digital Logic States 313
12.1.2 Number Codes Used in Digital Electronics 314
12.1.3 Clock Timing and Parallel versus Serial Transmission 320
12.2 Logic Gates 321
12.2.1 Multiple-Input Logic Gates 322
12.2.2 Digital Logic Gate ICs 322
12.2.3 Applications for a Single Logic Gate 323
12.2.4 Combinational Logic 325
12.2.5 Keeping Circuits Simple (Karnaugh Maps) 332
Contents
xi12.3 Combinational Devices 334
12.3.1 Multiplexers (Data Selectors) and Bilateral Switches 334
12.3.2 Demultiplexers (Data Distributors) and Decoders 336
12.3.3 Encoders and Code Converters 339
12.3.4 Binary Adders 342
12.3.5 Binary Adder/Subtractor 344
12.3.6 Arithmetic/Logic Units (ALUs) 344
12.3.7 Comparators and Magnitude Comparator ICs 345
12.3.8 Parity Generator/Checker 346
12.3.9 ANote on Obsolescence and the Trend toward Microcontroller
Control 347
12.4 Logic Families 348
12.4.1 TTL Family of ICs 349
12.4.2 CMOS Family of ICs 351
12.4.3 Input/Output Voltages and Noise Margins 351
12.4.4 Current Ratings, Fanout, and Propagation Delays 352
12.4.5 A Detailed Look at the Various TTL and CMOS Subfamilies 353
12.4.6 A Look at a Few Other Logic Series 356
12.4.7 Logic Gates with Open-Collector Outputs 357
12.4.8 Schmitt-Triggered Gates 358
12.4.9 Interfacing Logic Families 359
12.5 Powering and Testing Logic ICs and General Rules of Thumb 360
12.5.1 Powering Logic ICs 360
12.5.2 Power Supply Decoupling 361
12.5.3 Unused Inputs 361
12.5.4 Logic Probes and Logic Pulsers 362
12.6 Sequential Logic 363
12.6.1 SR Flip-Flops 363
12.6.2 SR Flip-Flop (Latch) ICs 368
12.6.3 D Flip-Flops 369
12.6.4 A Few Simple D-Type Flip-Flop Applications 371
12.6.5 Quad and Octal D Flip-Flops 372
12.6.6 JK Flip-Flops 373
12.6.7 Applications for JK Flip-Flops 375
12.6.8 Practical Timing Considerations with Flip-Flops 378
12.6.9 Digital Clock Generator and Single-Pulse Generators 379
12.6.10 Automatic Power-Up Clear (Reset) Circuits 382
12.6.11 More on Switch Debouncers 382
12.6.12 Pullup and Pulldown Resistors 383
12.7 Counter ICs 384
12.7.1 Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) ICs 384
12.7.2 Synchronous Counter ICs 387
12.7.3 ANote on Counters with Displays 393
12.8 Shift Registers 394
12.8.1 Serial-In/Serial-Out Shifter Registers 395
12.8.2 Serial-In/Parallel-Out Shift Registers 395
xii
Contents12.8.3 Parallel-In/Serial-Out Shift Register 396
12.8.4 Ring Counter (Shift Register Sequencer) 396
12.8.5 Johnson Shift Counter 397
12.8.6 Shift Register ICs 398
12.8.7 Simple Shift Register Applications 401
12.9 Three-State Buffers, Latches, and Transceivers 404
12.9.1 Three-State Octal Buffers 404
12.9.2 Three-State Octal Latches and Flip-Flops 405
12.9.3 Transceivers 407
12.10 Additional Digital Topics 407
CHAPTER 13
DC Motors, RC Servos, and Stepper Motors 40913.1 DC Continuous Motors 409
13.2 Speed Control of DC Motors 410
13.3 Directional Control of DC Motors 411
13.4 RC Servos 412
13.5 Stepper Motors 414
13.6 Kinds of Stepper Motors 415
13.7 Driving Stepper Motors 417
13.8 Controlling the Driver with a Translator 419
13.9 A Final Word on Identifying Stepper Motors 421
CHAPTER 14
Hands-on Electronics 42314.1 Safety 423
14.1.1 Some Safety Tips 424
14.1.2 Damaging Components with Electrostatic Discharge 425
14.1.3 Handling Precautions 426
14.2 Constructing Circuits 426
14.2.1 Drawing a Circuit Schematic 426
14.2.2 ANote on Circuit Simulator Programs 428
14.2.3 Making a Prototype of Your Circuit 428
14.2.4 The Final Circuit 429
14.2.5 A Note about Board Layout 433
14.2.6 Special Pieces of Hardware Used in Circuit Construction 433
14.2.7 Soldering 434
14.2.8 Desoldering 434
14.2.9 Enclosing the Circuit 435
14.2.10 Useful Items to Keep Handy 435
14.2.11 Troubleshooting the Circuits You Build 436
14.3 Multimeters 437
14.3.1 Basic Operation 437
14.3.2 How Analog VOMs Work 438
14.3.3 How Digital Multimeters Work 439
14.3.4 A Note on Measurement Errors 440
Contents
xiii14.4 Oscilloscopes 441
14.4.1 How Scopes Work 441
14.4.2 Interior Circuitry of a Scope 443
14.4.3 Aiming the Beam 444
14.4.4 Scope Applications 445
14.4.5 What All the Little Knobs and Switches Do 446
14.4.6 Measuring Things with Scopes 450
14.4.7 Scope Applications 455
APPENDICES
459APPENDIX A
Power Distribution and Home Wiring 459A.1 Power Distribution 459
A.2 A Closer Look at Three-Phase Electricity 460
A.3 Home Wiring 462
A.4 Electricity in Other Countries 463
APPENDIX B
Electronic Symbols 465APPENDIX C
Useful Facts and Formulas 467C.1 Greek Alphabet 467
C.2 Powers of 10 Unit Prefixes 467
C.3 Linear Functions (
C.4 Quadratic Equation (
C.5 Exponents and Logarithms 468
C.6 Trigonometry 468
C.7 Complex Numbers 469
C.8 Differential Calculus 469
y = mx + b) 467y = ax2 + bx + c) 468APPENDIX D
Finding Components 471APPENDIX E
A Note on Injection Molding and Patents 473APPENDIX F
History of Electronics Timeline 477APPENDIX G
Component Data, List of Logic ICs, Foreign Semiconductor Codes 483G.1 Standard Resistance Values for 5% Carbon-Film Resistors 483
G.2 Selection of Diodes 483
G.3 Selection of Zener Diodes 485
G.4 General Purpose Bipolar Transistors 486
G.5 General Purpose Power Bipolar Transistors 487
G.6 Selection of RF Transistors 488
xiv
ContentsG.7 Selection of Small-Signal JFETs 488
G.8 Selection of Power FETs 489
G.9 Selection of Op Amps 490
G.10 Common 4000 Series Logic ICs 491
G.11 Common 7000 Series Logic ICs 492
G.12 Semiconductor Codes 494
APPENDIX H
Analog/Digital Interfacing 497H.1 Triggering Simple Logic Responses from Analog Signals 497
H.2 Using Logic to Drive External Loads 498
H.3 Analog Switches 499
H.4 Analog Multiplexer/Demultiplexer 500
H.5 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion 501
H.6 Analog-to-Digital Converters 508
APPENDIX I
Displays 515I.1 LED Displays 515
I.2 Alphanumeric LED Displays 518
I.3 Liquid-Crystal Displays 521
APPENDIX J
Memory Devices 535J.1 Read-Only Memories (ROMs) 535
J.2 Simple ROM Made Using Diodes 536
J.3 Terms Used to Describe Memory Size and Organization 537
J.4 Simple Programmable ROM 538
J.5 Various Kinds of ROM Devices 539
J.6 Random-Access Memories (RAMs) 545
APPENDIX K
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers 553K.1 Introduction to Microprocessors 554
K.2 Microcontrollers 561
Index 585
RC/RL/RLC Circuits 28
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